Learning Difficulties: Causes

Learning Difficulties: Causes Learning Difficulties LO. 1 Explain what is meant by learning disabilities, and outline their possible causes and manifestations. The term and definition of learning disability has its controversies and ambiguousness and the term means different things to different people having various cultural and medical connotations. Individuals identified as having learning difficulties are recognized and understood by the communities in which they live, the personal services they need, and the kind of support they expect. Yet, generally Learning Disability can be defined as a cognitive disorder that adversely affects peoples ability to interpret visual and auditory information or to link different pieces of information from different parts of the brain to integrate them in a coherent manner. There is thus an apparent lack of integration and coordination of information (see Emerson et al., 2001). These limitations as revealed through learning disabilities can be manifested as specific difficulties with coordination, attention, spoken and written language, or even self-control. Difficulties in learning also affect schoolwor k and can lead to impediments in learning to read and write. According to the Department of Health, Learning Disability can be defined as A significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information, to learn new skills (impaired intelligence), with, a reduced ability to cope independently (impaired social functioning) and which started before adulthood, with a lasting effect on development. (DOH, 2001 p14) Specifically in Scotland the term learning disability is used to describe: those with a significant, lifelong condition that started before adulthood, that affects their development and which means they need help to understand information, learn skills and cope independently. (Scottish Executive, 2000) According to the British Institute of Learning Disabilities, (BILD), Learning Disability is just a label. BILD points out that the term learning disability is being increasingly replaced by the term learning difficulties and as given by the Warnock Committee learning difficulties is a term used to cover specific problems with learning in children that might arise as a result of a number of different factors, eg medical problems, emotional problems, language impairments etc (BILD, 2005). There can be different types of learning disabilities that can be categorized into three broad groups:Learning Disabilities related to developmental speech and language disorders. Learning Disabilities associated with academic skills disordersLearning Disabilities associated with coordination disorders, learning handicaps and problems in integration of informationFor deciding that someone has learning disabilities, three diagnostic criteria are used: Intellectual Ability Legislative definitions of learning disability Social competence. Learning disability can also be classified into two main categories and the causes can be genetic or environmental. Learning disability can occur due to several different types of causes. Impairments causing learning difficulties can occur before, after or during birth. Before birth reasons can be congenital and include Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, Hurler syndrome or Fragile X syndrome. Oxygen deprivation during birth and postnatal illnesses, brain injury or meningitis can lead to learning disabilities and impaired cognitive development. Environmental factors leading to learning disabilities can include infections, trauma, drugs or social deprivation and neglect (Watson, 2003). As we have already mentioned particular types of learning disabilities are associated with particular kinds of manifestations and specific learning characteristics. LO.2 Estimate the prevalence of learning disabilities and appreciate the impact that this may have on professional health care practice. The incidence and prevalence of learning disability is difficult to determine as the only manifestations of learning disability that can be detected at birth are clear syndromes like Down syndrome and the majority of infants with learning disabilities go undetected till much later. Delays in childrens cognitive development help ascertain whether they have learning disabilities. Prevalence of a disease or a general condition is the estimation of the number of people affected as a proportion to the general population. If IQ is used as an indicator of learning disability, then many people with learning disabilities go unaccounted for. Administrative prevalence of any such condition refers to the number of people that are provided with some form of service from caring agencies. The general consensus is that the overall prevalence of moderate and severe learning difficulties are 3-4 people per 1000 in the general population (DoH, 1992). The prevalence of severe to moderate disability has been recorded at 3.7 per 1000 population whereas the prevalence of mild learning disability seems to affect 20-30 per 1000 of the general population. Further it has been observed that among 3-4 persons in 1000 within UK suffering with learning disabilities nearly 30% report severe or profound learning problems. Within the group of individuals suffering from severe learning difficulties most also suffer from multiple physical and sensory impairments as also behavioral difficulties. These individuals require lifelong support to maintain themselves and to achieve a level of lifestyle. Emerson et al (2001), have suggested that within UK there are some 230,000-350,000 persons with severe learning disabilities, and around 580,000-1,750,000 persons with mild learning disabilities. They also suggest in their study that there are differences in male and female prevalence rates and incidence of disabilities with males showing higher prevalence than females. Enable et al. (2003) have suggested that the number of people with learning disabilities has increased by 1.2 % a year over the last 35 years and since 1965 the number of people with severe learning disabilities has increased by 50%. There are many controversies on the validity and use of epidemiological data and on prevalence and incidence rates of learning disabilities. All children with learning disabilities are not reported and in most cases it is difficult to understand the symptoms of learning disability until at a much later stage. One of the major problems is the argument that collection of data on disabled individuals invariably leads to labeling and brings in concerns as to whether such discrimination is useful or necessary. However some scholars have argued that labeling helps in identifying the disabled individuals and ensures that special needs of such people are met through adequate care provisions. Incidence rates and prevalence data on learning disabilities are helpful in clinical practice as it provides an estimate of the nature and extent of support that healthcare services should be prepared to provide. LO.3 Describe how people with learning disabilities have been misunderstood in the past and how this may affect contemporary provision of health care for them. Attitudes and beliefs about people with learning disabilities have changed rapidly in the last few decades and have consequently shaped healthcare provisions available to this group of people. Models of social inclusion and community care have replaced traditional models of institutional care and there is more emphatic appreciation of civil and human rights of individuals with learning disabilities. It has been argued that the rate of change in services to disabled individuals has been slow in Scotland as compared to other parts of Britain, but this has also helped enable accurate assessment and greater response to fulfilling needs of people with learning disabilities. Social care policies by the Department of Health, legislative definitions of learning difficulties along with human rights campaigning for such people and increased spread of awareness that learning disability is more of a convenient label, have altogether led to improved conditions and stronger commitments to provide a more person centered approach to care than before. People with severe or moderate learning disabilities were regarded as mentally deficient or retarded and since the implementation of the Mental Deficiency Act in 1913, it was recommended and all mentally retarded be categorized according to the level of disability and by 1929 100, 000 mentally retarded individuals were institutionalized in the UK. Although in the early 19th century, institutional care for patients with learning disabilities aimed at modifying or changing mental defect, this was quickly replaced by a philosophy of control and coercion in custody. The initial institutionalized colonies were changed to long term hospitals following the NHS 1946 Act. By the 1950s and 1960s the concept of custodial institutionalized care for learning disabilities was questioned and there was an eventual introduction of community care. In 1971 the White Paper Better Services for the Mentally Handicapped was introduced in Great Britain and the care philosophy was led by the concept of normalization rather than segregation. This was aimed to increase social participation and greater social roles of individuals with learning disabilities to integrate them in mainstream society. The contemporary provision of health care as set by the Department of Health or NHS gives emphasis to schedules of community care, social inclusion and social participation of individuals with learning disabilities and discourages institutionalization. LO.4 Define the concept of inclusion and identify barriers that serve to exclude people with learning disabilities from mainstream services. Introducing the strategy for services supporting people with learning disabilities in England, the Department of Health (2001) has described social inclusion in the following words:Being part of the mainstream is something most of us take for granted. We go to work, look after our families, visit our GP, use transport, go to the swimming pool or cinema. Inclusion means enabling people with learning disabilities to do those ordinary things, make use of mainstream services and be fully included in the local community.'(p24) People with learning disabilities have long been marginalized and excluded from society not only regarding social issues but also indirectly on decisions about their own lives. The Human Rights Act 2000 has also stressed on the basic fundamental rights of such individuals and this has given them a voice and strength in society. Whether it is choice of career or access to health services, the individuals with learning disabilities now have many options, and varied preferences. According to Jenkins et al (2003), an inclusive approach recognizes that formal and informal elements of the wider society need to change or adapt to enable excluded people to use opportunities and services. This explains the general approach in providing care to individuals with learning disabilities and the aim is to help them adapt and merge with the mainstream society with increased opportunities and special services. Yet there are major barriers to providing such individuals with the advantages of normal provisions and services. Some of these barriers include the nature of the problems that can involve severe physical or mental impairment. Factors identified as impediments to social inclusion of learning disabled individuals can be the process of labeling itself which discriminates socially healthy individuals from the disadvantaged ones. Although labeling has it won advantages, identifying individuals as disabled can lead to special exclusion and discrimination in areas of jobs, lifestyle or social participation. Although the situation has drastically improved after recognition of human rights needs of the learning disabled, the disadvantaged peoples own low levels of motivation, heightened social anxiety, discomfort in social participation, feelings of inferiority and practical problems in not being able to perform normal physical activities are common barriers to a health social life for these individuals. The mindset of people towards disadvantaged individuals may be changing but needs to change even further. Several associated illnesses, physical, visual, language deficiencies, special health needs such as weight problems, requirements in special schools and education needs are also some of the barriers that impede the active participation of such individuals in mainstream society. LO.5 Identify the main additional health problems faced by people with learning disabilities, and the consequent challenges posed to mainstream health services. Some of the associated health problems in people with learning disabilities are Mental illness such as schizophrenia, anxiety and depression and also challenging behavior such as aggression and self-injury. Prevalence rates of mental health illnesses are greater among individuals with learning difficulties than among the general population. Learning-disabled persons are also categorized as mentally deficient or retarded as they may not be able to perform intelligence tests due to their learning problems. Thus such people may be categories as having severe intellectual difficulties resulting in subnormality or abnormality. Abnormal conditions are however more of psychopathic disorders found widely in these individuals. Epilepsy shows higher prevalence rates in persons with learning disabilities than in the normal population. The British Epilepsy Association has estimated that there are nearly 200,000 people with learning disabilities severely affected by the learning disability disorder. (BILD, 2001) Physical and Sensory disabilities are common in people with learning disabilities as visual and auditory impairments are common in such conditions. Hearing impairment is found in individuals with Downs Syndrome and these additional disabilities are also associated with the fact that the persons with learning problems do not get support as far as using other devices are concerned. Complex health needs are common among people with learning disabilities and issues such as weight problems, or lack of a balanced diet are barriers in the betterment of such individuals. Significant numbers of people with such conditions do not engage in required amounts of physical activities and there is also a general lack of awareness about the amount or nature of diet that should be taken for a sedentary life. This leads to further complications such as heart problems, kidney problems etc at a young age. Chronic dental problems, poor oral health and unhealthy teeth and gums are some of the common problems. Such individuals have untreated tooth decay that is prolonged and causes damage, as well as a very poor sense of oral hygiene with irregular or minimal brushing and cleaning of the mouth etc. This aggravates other associated health problems. Facing and consequently overcoming health problems are the major barriers and also the major challenges not only for individuals with learning disabilities but also for social workers, community healthcare professionals and the Department of Health as a whole.The concept of social inclusion necessitates that these related health problems should be considered. LO.6 Discuss the importance of working in partnership with people with learning disabilities, using advanced communication skills, and the concept of capacity to give informed consent, along with the potential impact this may have on professional health care practice. According to Dunbar, working in partnership with people with learning disabilities is an essential first step towards social inclusion of such individuals. He wrote, people with learning disabilities or a mental illness should be treated in the same way as other people, not in side rooms. this lessens the chance of the person being out of sight, out of mind (Dunbar, 2003). This possibility of discrimination of such individuals have led to the recognition of the need for improved training, services and communication skills to effectively support and help these individuals. Health care professionals caring for persons with learning disabilities are required to have positive attitudes towards their patients. However within the healthcare setting negative attitudes and discriminatory practices are common and several studies have reported that such individuals are deprived of health care facilities and do not receive the care they should receive. In certain cases, inappropriate and derogatory language is also used to describe such patients and there have been reports of denied access to aids such as glasses or hearing equipment that can improve the quality of life for such individuals. The NHS Executive (1998) has stated that nursing staff require special training opportunities to face and overcome their fears or prejudices towards people with learning disabilities in order that they may learn to treat them with respect and equally as they treat other normal patients. Nurses and other health professionals should always try to go beyond social obstacles and try to meet or associate with such individuals in normal social situations and recognize their needs and shed any notion of stereotypes. The White Paper The same as you (Scottish Executive, 2000) has placed great emphasis on the needs of individuals with learning disabilities and to treat them equally. These are: being at the centre of decision making and have more control over their care; being included, better understood and supported by the communities in which they live; having information about their needs and the services available, so that they can take part, more fully, in decisions about them; having the same opportunities as others to get a job, develop as individuals, spend time with family and friends, enjoy life and get the extra support they need to do this; and being able to use local services wherever possible and special services if they need them. (Scottish Executive, 2000) It is recommended that specialized training should be provided to nurses to help them explore strategies of care for learning disabled individuals. Assisting in enabling inclusion and stressing on a holistic improvement of health and lifestyle of the individuals are areas of focus in nursing for such people. However as individuals with learning disabilities usually show auditory or speech difficulties, communicating with them effectively is a major challenge for nursing professionals and requires special skills and training. Communication is essential as according to legislative policies informed consent of the individual as to what treatment he should be subjected to and what his decisions are, lie as the primary focus of treatment. This is both an ethical and legal requirement that individuals with learning disabilities should be made aware and be allowed to express their opinions on any treatment or health care procedures (Eldridge, 2003). Conclusion: In this article we discussed 6 learning outcomes related to the health care needs, definitions, legislative policies, social implications and challenges of individuals with learning disabilities. Bibliography Human Rights Act (1998) London: HMSO. Mental Deficiency Act (1913) London: HMSO. Mental Health Act (1959) London: HMSO. Department of Health (2001) Valuing people: a new strategy for learning disability for the 21st century. London: The Stationery Office.Disability Discrimination Act (1995) London: HMSO. Scottish Executive (2002) Promoting health, supporting inclusion. Edinburgh: Stationery Office. National Health Service and Community Care Act (1990) London: HMSO. Department of Health (1999) Once a day. London: NHS Executive. DOH (1998) Signposts for success in commissioning and providing health services for people with learning disabilities. London: NHS Executive. DOH (1989) Caring for people: community care in the next decade and beyond. Cm.849. London: HMSO. DoH (1992) Social care for adults with learning disabilities. (Mental Handicap (LAC (92)15). London. HMSO. Dunbar, I. (2003) Inquiry under the fatal accidents and sudden death inquiry (Scotland) Act1976 into the death of James Mauchland. Sheriffdom of Tayside, Central and Fife at Dundee, Scotland. Emerson, E.; Hatton, C.; Felce, D. and Murphy, G. (2001) Learning disabilities: the fundamental facts. The Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities. London. Jenkins, R.; Mansell, I. and Northway, R. (2003) Specialist learning disability services in the UK. In: Gates, B. Learning disabilities: towards inclusion. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp349-367. World Health Organization (1993) Describing developmental disability. Guidelines for a multiaxial scheme for mental retardation (learning disability), 10th revision, Geneva: WHO. Gates, B. (2000) Knowing: the importance of diagnosing learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4(1) pp5-6. Enable (7 Oct 2002) Adults with Incapacity Act (2000). Available at, http://www.enable.org.uk/ld/awi/ Also Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act (2000) London: HMSO. Eldridge, P. (2003) Ethics and research involving people with learning disabilities. In: Markwick, A. and Parrish, A. Learning disabilities: themes and perspectives. Edinburgh: Elsevier Science pp65-80. Department of Health (2001) Valuing people: a new strategy for learning disability for the 21st century. London: The Stationery Office. Hogenboom, M. (2001) Living with genetic syndromes associated with intellectual disability. London: Jessica Kingsley. Scottish Executive (2000) The same as you? A review of services for people with learning disabilities. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. Watson, D. (2003) Causes and manifestations of learning disabilities. In: Gates, B. (ed) Learning disabilities: toward inclusion. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. British Institute for Learning Disabilitieshttp://www.bild.org.uk/links/ Department of Healthhttp://www.doh.gov.uk The Scottish Executivehttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/ National Health Servicewww.nhs.uk

Cloning: The Ethical Dilemma :: Biology

Cloning: The Ethical Dilemma Following the successful cloning of a lamb to produce Dolly, a genetically identical twin of its mother lamb, controversy has arose over the frightening prospects of cloning technology. Although undeniable that the ability to clone livestock and even humans is a leap in medical advancement, such technology must be utilized with careful considerations to the issue of ethics. There are many obvious advantages of cloning technology which comes to mind with the successful cloning of Dolly. Of most immediate concern will be the ability to clone a variety of animal species for food, research and medical uses. For instance, farmers can now opt to farm only genetically cloned, top quality animals. Another possibility can be the mass cloning of animals with genetic defects that mimic human diseases. This will facilitate large-scale scientific research of such diseases. Cloning also raises the possibility of producing transgenic animals, which can help alleviate human organ shortage by providing organs for transplant. There are still many more opportunities resulting from cloning that cannot be discussed here due to the brevity of this essay. Judging by the many advantages of cloning, should we then jump into this new technology without further hesitation? There are ethical issues that must be carefully considered. For instance, is it right for us to turn to human farming to provide suitable organs for transplants? Are we not infringing on the rights of these human clones? Or do we not even consider them to be in the same class as us? What about the possibility of having designer babies? Would not it be perfect if we are able to select babies the way we buy our groceries, selecting those without inherent flaws? What about those who cannot afford to have their babies made to order? Will their children be subject to discrimination simply because they are less than perfect? Other than ethic issues alone, there are medical issues to take into consideration as well. Cloning technology is still in its infancy and as yet, long term effects of cloning are still unpredictable. Should we then go ahead with mass cloning when we are still groping in the dark as to its future consequences? There is a need for us to view cloning research in the right perspective. As with any other medical research, it can be a double-edged sword if exploited in the wrong manner.

Humanism and Secular Humanism

The question has been raised: who is in control of curriculum in our school? Not just the choosing of the precise books, but who is in charge of the contents of the books that curriculum directors can choose from? Once the answers to these questions are found, what should be done if they point to one group? So many problems in the United States have arisen when the people discover that one group is violating the people†s rights in some way by not allowing others power, that it would be logical to conclude that it would be perceived by many to be unfair if it is found that one interest group chooses what all American children learn, especially if that interest group is furthering their own interests by doing so. However, finding out the answers to these questions is quite difficult at best. The subject has been written about extensively, and since there are so many opinions, the unbiased truth is virtually impossible to come by. In this topic, it has been at least suggested by others that everyone is biased, including our Supreme Court, so one must tread carefully in stating so-called â€Å"facts.† Humanism and secular humanism and what they have to do with present educational curriculum will be discussed for the remainder. Though human nature tends to make all humans biased in some way, both sides of the argument have been researched and will be documented until fair conclusions can be made. First, the term â€Å"humanism† must be defined. To do this fully, the definition of â€Å"humanism† will be given from the dictionary, and then humanists themselves will have a turn to define themselves. Merriam Webster†s Collegiate Dictionary terms â€Å"humanism† as â€Å"a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; esp.: a philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual†s dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason.† The same dictionary defines â€Å"doctrine† as â€Å"a principle or position or the body of principles in a branch of knowledge or system of belief: DOGMA.† To understand fully what this is pointing to, one must then look at the definition of â€Å"dogma†-â€Å"a doctrine or body of doctrines concerning faith or morals formally stated and authoritatively proclaimed by a church.† Most will agree that an accredited collegiate dictionary is an acceptable place to look for information, and here it is shown that humanism can be tied to a religion. People who claim to be humanist would also seem to be a good place to look for a formal term for humanism. Rebecca Bushnell writes of early humanist pedagogy when she says, â€Å"This is a humanism based on belief that people are largely responsible for what happens on this earth; committed to tolerance, attention to the differences among people and the need to treat them with equal respect; shaped by a cheerful acceptance of ambivalence and contradiction; and informed by an almost painful historical consciousness, which sees the past as estranged yet able to illuminate present concerns (8).† This explanation definitely sounds like what most people want to feel, or at least what they claim to, but humanism is more than this. Humanism is also defined by the worship of man; Curtis W. Reese writes, â€Å"There is a large element of faith in all religion. [Christianity has faith] in the love of God; and Humanism in man as the measure of values†¦Hypotheses, postulates, and assumptions in their proper realm are comparable to faith in the realm of religion. In this way I speak of the faith of Humanism.† Another humanist deals with the humanistic beliefs in right and wrong: â€Å"In humanism right and wrong are defined in terms of consequence to human life (10).† To further clarify what humanists believe, more writings of humanists will prove that they consider humanism to be their religion. Gerald A. Larque, a man who signed the Humanist Manifesto II, writes, â€Å"Our religion is based upon the best that we know about our cosmos, our world, and ourselves†¦We recognize our oneness with the cosmos and our spatial and temporal minuteness†¦We see ourselves as the highest life-form the evolutionary process has developed†¦(11).† The 1979 Humanist of the Year, who co-founded and edited The New Humanist, also believes humanism to be a religion: â€Å"†¦Humanism in a naturalistic frame is validly a religion†¦(7).† A Humanist Manifesto, also known as the Humanist Manifesto I, continually describes humanism as a religion. â€Å"The time has come for widespread recognition of the radical changes in religious beliefs†¦In every field of human activity, the vital movement is now in the direction of a candid and explicit humanism†¦religious humanism (13).† From the Humanist Manifesto II, one can see that Kurtz thinks of humanism as † a philosophical, religious, and moral point of view† and that it offers a believer a formula for salvation and a future sanctuary (12). Other humanists who claim humanism as their religion illustrate what â€Å"religion† means to them. Julian Huxley says in Religion Without Revelation, â€Å"There are whole religions which make no mention of God. The most notable example, as already mentioned, is that of Buddhism (14).† Furthering this thought, â€Å"Religion, then,†¦will mean a ruling commitment practiced by a community of individuals to what they believe creates, sustains, saves, and transforms human existence toward the greatest good (15).† With this, one has sufficient information concerning basic humanism beliefs. Besides the fact that humanists themselves admit to being a religious organization, there are several examples of how the American legal system treats humanism-as a religion. In a Supreme Court case, Torcaso v. Watkins, a Notary Public from Maryland was reinstated after being fired for refusing to proclaim a belief in God. The Court recognized religions that do not believe in God as â€Å"real† religions when it wrote, â€Å"Among religions in this country which do not teach what would generally be considered a belief in God are Buddhism, Taoism, Ethical Culture, Secular Humanism and others (7).† This statement will be considered later in the discussion. All formal humanist membership organizations in America claim 501(c )3 religious tax exempt status or deem themselves expressly religious. Dr. Paul Kurtz states, â€Å"Even the American Humanist Association (3,500 members)†¦has a religious tax exemption (7).† An editor of The Humanist magazine, Paul Blanshard says, â€Å"There has been another victory for those who would interpret the word â€Å"religion† very broadly†¦the appellate court reversed by a unanimous decision. Now the F.O.R. [Fellowship of Reconciliation] is established as a â€Å"religious† organization, with full right to tax exemption (7).† Tax-exempt status is serious business. In an article titled â€Å"The Religion of Democracy: Part II,† Rudolph Dreikurs argues that humanism should be thought of as religious because of the form and content. â€Å"The new religion will probably be humanistic. It will be concerned with man and not with God.† This â€Å"new religion† will have new principles, new rituals, and new symbols (16). Those involved in the humanist religion also have their own ministers, and â€Å"minister† is defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary as â€Å"one officiating or assisting the officiant in church worship.† Harvard University has its own Humanist chaplain, Thomas Ferrick, who is also â€Å"one of the 34 full- and part-time chaplains that make up the United Ministry at Harvard and Radcliffe, and he also serves as executive director of the Humanist Association of Massachusetts† local chapter (17).† In Auburn University†s Student/Faculty Directory, under â€Å"Auburn Pastors and Campus Ministers-Humanist,† there is a Humanist Counselor for the students (7). The University of Arizona†s Student Handbook for 1990-1991 lists â€Å"Humanists† under the title â€Å"Religious Services† (7). These facts should only prove further that Humanism is a religion. Now that humanism is understood, it is time to link humanism with present-day educational curriculum. Paul Vitz conducted research on the censorship of student†s textbooks, funded by the National Institute of Education, a part of the federal government, and came to the conclusion that they are strongly biased for the Secular Humanist worldview. â€Å"Whether one calls it secular humanism, enlightenment universalism, skeptical modernism, or just plain permissive liberalism, the bottom line is that a very particular and narrow sectarian philosophy has taken control of American education (18).† This seems to be a documented conclusion from an recognized institute, but yet it has not been fully discussed with the American public at large. Humanists themselves have admitted to the fact that they use the classroom to further their religion. John J. Dunphy states in his A Religion for a New Age, â€Å"[T]he battle for humankind†s future must be waged and won in the public school classroom by teachers who correctly perceive their role as the proselytizers of a new faith: a religion of humanity that recognizes and respects the spark of what theologians call divinity in every human being (19).† Another man who calls himself a â€Å"Humanist minister†, Charles Francis Potter, says: â€Å"Education is thus a most powerful ally of Humanism, and every American public school is a school of Humanism. What can the theistic Sunday-schools, meeting for an hour once a week, and teaching only a fraction of the children, do to stem the tide of a five-day program of humanistic teaching? (20)† He then continues, â€Å"So very Humanistic is modern education that no religion has a future unless it be Humanism (20).† These men obviously believe very strongly not only that humanism is being taught in American public schools, but also that it should overpower other religions. John Dewey, who signed the Humanist Manifesto I, wrote a book, Education Today, in which he voices many opinions about education and how humanism should be implemented. â€Å"I believe that†¦it is the business of every one interested in education to insist upon the school as the primary and most effective instrument of social progress and reform†¦(21)†. On page eighty he says, â€Å"We certainly cannot teach religion as an abstract essence. We have got to teach something as religion, and that means practically some religion.† He also believes public education to be the vehicle by which this â€Å"deeper religion† is promoted (21). Now that it has been documented that the humanist religion is being funneled into public schools, it is time to give a few examples of the things in school curriculum that are humanist in nature. First, homosexuality is being pushed as acceptable behavior to students. The schools are teaching that it should be looked at as positive to have â€Å"full sexual adjustment without any hang-ups caused by outdated religious concepts. And our schools are the main tool used to teach the young people this human freedom (6).† Not only is homosexuality taught as â€Å"okay,† but they are also teaching the theory of evolution in full force. Teachers are not allowed to present any kind of argument for creationist theory; Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., states, â€Å"In fact, it is often considered inappropriate to criticize evolution, let alone present the creationist position (6).† This occurs without much argument, despite the fact that there are many books very critical of evolutionary theory â€Å"written by either evolutionists or by individuals who at least do not agree with the creationist perspective (6).† The biology textbook Of Pandas and People by Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon was included by the trustees in Plano, Texas, in the school curriculum, and humanist educators lost all pretense of â€Å"tolerance† because the book â€Å"acknowledges the abundance of design manifest in the natural world and thus reasonably postulates an intelligent Designer (7).† Homosexuality and evolution are just a couple examples of humanist perspective in the schools. The logic these humanists use, that schools are the best place to push their beliefs, makes complete sense, even â€Å"falls in line† with some of the basic thoughts of sociological theory: that â€Å"no knowledge is value-neutral; no knowledge is free of presuppositions. All knowledge is rooted in the social structure in particular ways and reflects (even if indirectly) the particular interest of different sectors of the population (4).† Reasonably, this idea is also true for knowledge given to children in public schools. Even John Dewey said (as quoted earlier) that the teaching of religion is inevitable in schools, that â€Å"some religion† would have to be taught. Is this what the American Constitution allows? It is wrong, and very punishable, for public schools to advocate Christianity or to teach any of its beliefs, but the teaching of humanism†s beliefs remains untouched. Humanists tend to label certain â€Å"unpopular† ideas (those that they do not agree with) as religious, and those they do support as non-religious. For instance, schools are free to teach â€Å"thou shalt not steal, lie, or murder† but not â€Å"thou shalt not commit adultery or take the name of God in vain.† What is the difference between the two statements, which are both from the Ten Commandments, the most basic Western religious law? Other concepts taught presently that have a religious origin are â€Å"the goal of treating others as one would like to be treated, the need to take an occasional break from one†s work, to be balanced in all things, and the attempt to be fair to all people (6).† One of the biggest objective of liberals in recent years has been to insure equal rights for all people, yet this idea was adopted as a religious goal over 2,000 years ago in the Christian Scriptures. Bergman states, â€Å"Incidentally, the source of the belief in the equality of man is the Bible, few ancient books espouse this concept, and it is foreign to most non-Christian peoples (6).† Since these concepts are biblical in origin, why are the students not told this? What about the fact that abortion, homosexuality and fornication are talked about in school, but teachers are not allowed to discuss the religious side of the issue, only the side deemed non-religious? Though the public schools are teaching a type of religion, obviously, the students are not informed about it; in fact, the topic of religion is not deemed important (6). Community schools, before federal aid was instigated, were to reflect the values of those who lived in it. â€Å"What happened to â€Å"community public schools† that were to reflect the values of the community? They disappeared when federal aid was approved. Now only what is approved by secularists [humanists] in Washington is ‘neutral† (22).† As James David Hunter documents, â€Å"Public education arguably shares a common ethical orientation with modern humanism, particularly to the degree that these perspectives are advanced without respect for cultural traditions that might dissent (4).† Community†s values are no longer taken into account when curriculum is chosen. In recent times, the idea of choice in education has come to life with a system of tuition vouchers, but criticism of this choice has been rampant among the educators who believe in humanism. Richard A. Baer, Jr. writes: â€Å"The point is this: Education never takes place in a moral and philosophical vacuum. If the larger questions about human beings and their destiny are not being asked and answered within a predominantly Judeo-Christian framework, they will be addressed within another philosophical or religious framework-but hardly one that is â€Å"neutral.† The arrogance and philosophical implausibility of secular humanism are demonstrated by the insistence of many humanists that their position possesses such neutrality, lack of dogma, and essential rationality. It is an arrogance that also quickly becomes coercive and imperialistic, as is clearly seen in the widespread opposition among such educators toward genuine choice in education, for instance, the kind of choice that would be possible through a system of education tuition vouchers (23).† If America is a land of freedom, one would assume that Americans could choose where to send their children to school and what they are taught. However, not all Americans can afford private schools, so beyond their local public school, there is no choice. With all of this discord, it would be surprising if no one had taken this matter to the courts. They have, in some aspects. First one must look at the history of the First Amendment. The First Amendment was written to guarantee that the interest of certain faiths would not be expanded by direct or indirect benefaction of the government, at least not to the hindrance of smaller, minority faiths. When originally written, its intention was to curb the â€Å"deep and long-standing tensions† between various inter-Protestant competitions (4). Of course, they also encompassed conflicts between Protestants and Catholics and between Jew and Christians, whose beliefs are quite different, though these conflicts were minor because Catholics and Jews comprised less than two percent of the population at the start of the nineteenth century. When these populations increased, their full religious liberties were still restricted, continuing past the beginning of the twentieth century (4). This failure to fully perfect the ideals of the First Amendment is important because â€Å"many of the social dynamics taking place in the present find a parallel in the past (4).† Not only have the numbers of Muslims, Mormons, Hindus, and Buddhists grown, but the secular humanists have increased from two percent in 1962 to about eleven percent in 1990. Though humanism is not the same kind of religion as Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism are determined to be, how should they be perceived for First Amendment purposes? The Supreme Court held a strict definition of religion-â€Å"Our civilization and our institutions are emphatically Christian†¦Ã¢â‚¬ -until the early 1940s, when it broadened the definition: â€Å"Religious belief arises from a sense of the inadequacy of reason as a means of relating the individual to his fellow men and to his universe-a sense common to men in the most primitive and the most highly civilized societies†¦It is a belief finding expression in a conscience which categorically requires the believer to disregard elementary self-interest and to accept martyrdom in preference to transgressing its tenets†¦Conscientious objection may justly be regarded as a response of the individual to an inward mentor, call it conscience or God, that is for many persons at the present time the equivalent of what has always been thought a religious impulse (4).† This expanded the criterion from the nature of belief in a divine being to the psychological function of belief (4). In 1961 the Supreme Court decided that a Maryland law violated the no establishment clause because it put â€Å"the power and authority of the State of Maryland†¦on the side of one particular sort of believers-those who are willing to say they believe ‘in the existence of God† (4).† This new functional definition was not used with the no establishment clause by opponents until the case Smith v. Board of School Commissioners. The plaintiffs believed that most of the textbooks in the county public school system promoted secular humanism†s religion, which would violate the no establishment clause of the First Amendment. The first judgment in the case favored the plaintiff; however it was eventually overturned. A Washington Post columnist, Colman McCarthy, wrote: â€Å"A careful reading of the decision, as against a skimming of news accounts of it, reveals that Mobile families had a fair grievance: That what was taught in classrooms about religion was impeding the teachings of mothers and fathers at home about religion. What†s wrong with that complaint? (4)† What is wrong with that complaint? Surely every parent has the right to teach their children what they want to. It seems confusing to find that the Supreme Court did not believe humanist religion to be in school curriculum, especially when humanists themselves have admitted to the fact, as documented earlier. However, humanists have backtracked from their earlier, outspoken works. Paul Kurtz, quoted earlier, wrote his 1989 book, Eupraxophy: Living Without Religion, to â€Å"take back† all the earlier writings of humanists that claimed it a religion. He even coined a term-eupraxophy-to describe humanism without using the word religion. â€Å"Eupraxophy†¦provides a coherent, ethical life stance†¦it presents a cosmic theory of reality†¦defends a set of criteria governing the testing of truth claims†¦advocates an ethical posture. And it is committed implicitly or explicitly to a set of political ideals. Eupraxophy combines both a Weltanshuung and a philosophy of living.† Now, why would Kurtz do this after he had decided already that humanism was, in fact, a religion, his religion? Why? Kurtz realizes that if humanism is religion, then it will not be allowed in the schools: â€Å"For if humanism, even naturalistic and secular humanism, is a religion, then we would be faced with a violation of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states that ‘Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or the free exercise thereof.† (24).† It causes more confusion in the whole topic when different people claim different things. The whole argument comes down to this: That academic freedom seems to be unequal among educators. There are many different religious beliefs in America, and most teachers would claim to have some kind of religion or world view. â€Å"Academic freedom is the ability of the instructor to teach what he/she feels is the truth about reality in an intellectually honest and reasonable way (6).† Teachers in the present day are not allowed to teach what they believe and why, because of the First Amendment. Humanists and Christians have both agreed that religion will be taught in the schools in one manner or another, and this causes a great problem because someone must choose which religion will be taught. Noebel writes in his Clergy in the Classroom: â€Å"Imagine a child enrolled in a public school and learning only what that public school imparted (with no outside interference from family, church, Christian teachers or Congressional chaplains). When he graduated, what would he believe? Without divine intervention, he wouldn†t have much choice: Secular Humanism would be all he knew. This situation is idyllic, as far as the Humanists are concerned. Because their doctrines are every bit as dogmatic as Christian doctrine, and because they view Christianity as a ‘rotting corpse,† they use their established position to censor any hint of positive Christian influence in the classroom. Though they posture as ‘open-minded,† ‘tolerant† folks, Humanists eagerly discriminate against Christianity in the classroom (7).† This is not fair, just as it would not be fair if America†s public schools taught strictly Christian doctrine. Excluding religion from the classroom, when the whole purpose of school is to teach the entire body of knowledge, is â€Å"censorship of the worst sort (6).† Many parents, Humanist or Christian, Buddhist or Catholic, are rightfully worried that their children†s teachers will indoctrinate their children with some specific religious belief. However, students are bright, reasoning people and do not gullibly believe everything a teacher says. Children who have strong prejudices against certain groups do not let go of them easily, even when a teacher tries to help that child overcome the prejudice. Also, a teacher†s ideas may spark a child†s desire to further research the topic so that the child comes to his own conclusions. If students are to become those who can debate important topics, it seems that removing all religious questions would hinder that which is significant for living a well-rounded life (6). Jerry Bergman gives the example of Australia to clarify whether it is possible to bring religion into the classroom. Only three percent of Australia†s population attends church regularly, but the schools still have classes in religious education as an â€Å"integral part of the school curriculum at all grade levels (6).† This brings the conclusion that religion in schools is feasible, and not just the religion of one group. In conclusion, the questions asked at the beginning have been answered, but not fully. It has been proven that Humanism is a religion, by quotes of many influential Humanists and by the Supreme Court, and that there is evidence of Humanist beliefs in our school curriculum, by a federal government study and by Humanist†s admittance. Many men, Humanist, Christian, and those with unknown beliefs, have agreed that education cannot occur without some religious worldview†s influence, and the topic does not seem to be dormant in their minds. The battle is not over; the writer is quite convinced that there will be more court battles concerning this issue. To have an education system that treats each person†s beliefs equally, there needs to be a change. Either separate all children into schools of their respective religions, or treat them as intelligent individuals with minds that deserve to learn about all religious views and the immense amount of history that goes with them. Shujaa, Mwalimu J. Too Much Schooling, Too Little Education: A Paradox of Black Life in White Societies. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 1994. This book covered many areas of African-American education, and was a great background knowledge source. The topics most valid to my interests were the African experiences in schools, the analysis of African-American males† response to schooling, exploring exemplary African-American teachers† views, and African-Americans† communal nature of learning. Also I got great information concerning different school environments, and their effect on African-American students† education, which I then used to get strategies for teaching African-Americans from.

5 Common African American Stereotypes in TV and Film

African Americans may be scoring more substantial parts in film and television, but many continue to play roles that fuel stereotypes, such as thugs and maids. The prevalence of these parts reveals the importance of  #OscarsSoWhite and how African Americans continue to struggle for quality roles on both the small and big screens, despite having won  Academy Awards  in  acting, screenwriting,  music production and other categories. The Magical Negro Magical Negro characters have long played key roles in films and television programs. These characters tend to be African American men with special powers who make appearances solely to help white characters out of jams, seemingly unconcerned about their own lives. The late Michael Clarke Duncan famously played such a character in â€Å"The Green Mile.† Moviefone wrote of Duncan’s character, John Coffey, â€Å"He’s more an allegorical symbol than a person, his initials are J.C., he has miraculous healing powers, and he voluntarily submits to execution by the state as a way of doing penance for the sins of others. A ‘Magical Negro’ character is often the sign of lazy writing at best, or of patronizing cynicism at worst.† Magical Negroes are also problematic because they have no inner lives or desires of their own. Instead, they exist solely as a support system to the white characters, reinforcing the idea that African Americans aren’t as valuable or as human as their white counterparts. They don’t require unique storylines of their own because their lives simply don’t matter as much. In addition to Duncan, Morgan Freeman has played in some such roles, and Will Smith played a Magical Negro in â€Å"The Legend of Bagger Vance.† The Black Best Friend Black Best Friends typically don’t have special powers like Magical Negroes do, but they mainly function in films and television shows to guide white characters out of a crisis. Usually, female, the black best friend functions â€Å"to support the heroine, often with sass, attitude and a keen insight into relationships and life,† critic Greg Braxton noted in the  Los Angeles Times. Like Magical Negroes, black best friends appear not to have much going on in their own lives but turn up at exactly the right moment to coach white characters through life. In the film â€Å"The Devil Wears Prada,† for example, actress Tracie Thoms plays friend to star Anne Hathaway, reminding Hathaway’s character that she’s losing touch with her values. Also, actress Aisha Tyler played friend to Jennifer Love Hewitt on â€Å"The Ghost Whisperer,† and Lisa Nicole Carson played friend to Calista Flockhart on â€Å"Ally McBeal.† Television executive Rose Catherine Pinkney told the Times that there is a long tradition of black best friends in Hollywood. â€Å"Historically, people of color have had to play nurturing, rational caretakers of the white lead characters. And studios are just not willing to reverse that role.† The Thug There’s no shortage of black male actors playing drug dealers, pimps, con-artists and other forms of criminals in television shows and films such as â€Å"The Wire† and â€Å"Training Day.† The disproportionate amount of African Americans playing criminals in Hollywood fuels the racial stereotype that black men are dangerous and drawn to illicit activities. Often these films and television shows provide little social context for why more black men than others are likely to end up in the criminal justice system. They overlook how racial and economic injustice makes it more difficult for young black men to evade a prison term or how policies such as stop-and-frisk and racial profiling make black men targets of the authorities. They fail to ask whether black men are inherently more likely to be criminals than anyone else or if society plays a role in creating the cradle-to-prison pipeline for African American men. The Brash Woman Black women are routinely portrayed in television and film  as sassy, neck-rolling harpies  with major attitude problems. The popularity of reality television shows adds fuel to the fire of this stereotype. To ensure that programs such as â€Å"Basketball Wives† maintain plenty of drama, often the loudest and most aggressive black women are featured on these shows. Black women say these depictions have real-world consequences in their love lives and careers. When Bravo debuted the reality show â€Å"Married to Medicine† in 2013, black female physicians unsuccessfully petitioned the network to pull the plug on the program. â€Å"For the sake of integrity and character of black female physicians, we must ask that Bravo immediately remove and cancel ‘Married to Medicine’ from its channel, website, and any other media, the physicians demanded.  Black female physicians only compose 1 percent of the American workforce of physicians. Due to our small numbers, the depiction of black female doctors in media, on any scale, highly affects the public’s view of the character of all future and current African American female doctors.† The show ultimately aired and black women continue to complain that depictions of African American womanhood in the media fail to live up to reality. The Domestic Because blacks were forced into servitude for hundreds of years in the United States, it’s no surprise that one of the earliest stereotypes about African Americans to emerge in television and film is that of the domestic worker or mammy. Television shows and movies such as â€Å"Beulah† and â€Å"Gone With The Wind† capitalized on the mammy stereotype in the early 20th century. But more recently, movies such as â€Å"Driving Miss Daisy† and â€Å"The Help† featured African Americans as domestics as well. While Latinos are arguably the group most likely to be typecast as domestic workers nowadays, the controversy over the portrayal of black domestics in Hollywood hasn’t gone away. The 2011 film â€Å"The Help† faced intense criticism because the black maids helped catapult the white protagonist to a new stage in life while their lives remained static. Like the Magical Negro and the Black Best Friend, black domestics in film function mostly to nurture and guide white characters.

Notes On Autism Spectrum Disorder - 1656 Words

Lydia Chludil Personal Special Education Teaching Philosophy Paper TE 434: Introduction to Autism Spectrum Disorder David Rose 4/15/2016 What are the historical theories, who are the major contributors, and what are the relevant federal laws underlying the field of ASD? The historical theories that are in the field of ASD all originated with Leo Kanner. His work was started in 1943 where he identified â€Å"autism† using common descriptions. The descriptions lead to a certain criterion that was then used to identify those with ASD. The criteria included, but is not limited to, rare communication behaviors, as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors. Kanner worked to portray autism instead of define it.†¦show more content†¦The federal laws underlying the field of ASD are the Individuals with Disabilities Act 2004 and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act; both were created to protect the rights of individual with disabilities. Individual Disabilities Act is focused on the implementation of educational needs and services to students up to 21 years of age. It also entitles every student t o a free public education. Section 504 provides a free public education and each student receives services in the same manner as those who do not have a disability. Both of these federal laws were created to contribute to the education and development of every individual that would need an IEP. How do these theories interact with the dynamic development of the ASD definitions over time? According to dictionary.com â€Å"Autism spectrum disorder is a serious neurodevelopmental disorder that impairs a child s ability to communicate and interact with others. It also includes restricted repetitive behaviors, interests and activities. These issues cause significant impairment in social, occupational and other areas of functioning.† When ASD is googled, there are many possible definitions as a result, and not a single one is 100% comprehensive. There have been various theories to the development and definitions of ASD. These theories are dynamic to the development of the definition of ASD over time because the theories began targeting simple behaviors and labelling

The Immigration Law Of 140 Years - 925 Words

Throughout the years we have gone through various achievements; the election of the first â€Å"Black† President; the release of enslavement; the approval of â€Å"Gay† marriage and more, yet immigration still remains untouched. Now that is clearly an exaggerated statement, but The fact that the immigration law of 140 years ago is still not seen as a type of repression and the American current civilization is still in denial of it, is what makes it ever so severe. From the first immigration policy: the Page Act of 1875, to the Immigration reform and Control Act of 1986 the immigration policies have remained the same. Both acts, among others are not written for the safety of one country but for the racial discrimination of one specific group of immigrants, now especially to Latin Americans. Because of this discrimination is why it is so essential to understand how the immigrants have continued to exclude people and have not changed over time. The Page Act determined whether the immigration of any subject of China, Japan, or any Oriental country, to the United States, is free and voluntary. Further the importation into the United States of women for the purposes of prostitution was forbidden and deemed a conviction of no more than five years of prison time (Included in Chapter 141 Section 3 and 5 session 2). This act was incredibly specific in its exclusion, it deliberately targeted a particular group and limited their entrance for example by adding one characteristic (prostitution)Show MoreRelatedU.s. Department Of Homeland Security Essay778 Words   |  4 Pagesform I-140, employer petition. Unfortunately, eligibility for this immigration benefit under the proposal is highly restrictive and therefore will aid a far narrower group of foreign national workers than had been hoped. 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Management Practice and Theory Competitive Business

Question: Describe about Management Practice and Theory for Competitive Business. Answer: Introduction: In present competitive business environment, the phrase teamwork has able to enhance its significance greatly. Since, teamwork plays a crucial role in achieving organizational goals and objectives (West 2012). Therefore, several modules and theories are developed on the teamwork operation and its impact on the organizational success. Many studies have found that when employees have to work on their own, they often feel reluctant towards their responsibilities. As a result, they do not give their full effort in order to fulfill organizational goals and objectives. Therefore, management in organizations has to play a crucial role in developing effective team for the organizational success. However, managers have to consider several things at the time of developing effective teamwork in the organizational atmosphere. The major issue of developing establishing an effective teamwork is that it does not follow any specific rules. In fact, managers of different organizations have deal with different problem at the time of developing a strong foundation for implementing effective teamwork. In this assignment, the focus will be on different perspectives of teamwork establishment in order to identify the kind of challenges that organizations have to face at the time of developing effective team. Main body: Current business environment induces organizations to face with several types of internal and external factors that also have its impact on the employee performances. As a result, different organizations implement different rules in order to counter these factors and remain competitive in the market. For instance, organizational environment or economic environment is a major external factor that can affect business of an organization (Ulrich 2014). On the other hand, structure of an organization also has greater impact on the operational effectiveness. Since, these two factors create difficulties for the employees in managing their responsibilities. Therefore, modules and theories that describe organizational structure emphasizes on the teamwork operation that will include each and every employees of the organization. Many studies have also describes the way for organizations in developing an effective structure. It also highlighted that organizational structure heavily depends on bo th managers and employees effort. As a result, implementing effective teamwork is necessary for maintaining an effective organizational structure. On the other hand, organizational environment or economical environment is the external factor that organizations face in maintaining effective operational responsibilities. As per the article by Galegher, Kraut and Egido (2014) economical environment has two categories namely macroeconomic environment and microeconomic environment. The article highlighted that macroeconomic environment can affect entire business operation. On the other hand, microeconomic environment include the factors that affect organizational decision-making. Studies have established the fact that these factors have great impact on the effectiveness of the teamwork. Therefore, organizations have to consider elements like group composition, cohesiveness and motivation level of the employed staff so that the organization can able to maintain proper teamwork atmosphere. It also influences managers to utilize promoting effective team meetings, leading by examples, appraising achievements of any employee and developi ng proper work atmosphere so that employees can able to work together for the achievement of the organizational goal and objectives. As mentioned by Walzer et al. (2014) teamwork is necessary for the as it provides the opportunity for the maximum achievement of the organization. Therefore, collaboration among employees is a prime key for the success of the organization. However, the article also highlighted the fact that organizations also have to provide the atmosphere where employees can able to fulfill their individual goals. Since, higher probability of achieving individual goals allows employees to work more efficiently in a team environment. For instance, Ford automobile that considered among the top automobile manufacturer in the world, utilize well-organized work structuring in USA. The company follows a well-structured mechanism that is applicable for the top-level managers as well as for the ground level employees. Well-defined team objective is another prime factor that organizations have to consider at the time of developing effective teamwork environment. Since, it acts as a guideline for the employees to move towards the right direction, which eventually creates positive impact on the organizational goals and objectives. In this situation, practices of Google management can be highlighted. Since, Google utilize a unique OKR technique for tracking and defining objectives and evaluates outcomes (Lantz Friedrich, Sjberg and Friedrich 2016). It also describes the progress of an organizational objective with measurable results. The great significance of this technique is that it describes how an individual managers expectation varies with the possible level of achievement. Many studies have highlighted the significance of individual achievement appraisal and efficient team meeting on the utilization of effective teamwork. Since, ensures that all the employees of the organization are in right track. It also helps organization to implement regular planning procedure so that it can reduce the possibility of organizational failure (Schultz, Vitton and Butz 2015). Many successful organizations like Microsoft Corporation conduct staff meeting regularly in order to keep the mind of the employees in right shape. Microsoft also utilizes individual achievement appraisal in order to ensure that the employees are going in the right direction so that they can able to adjust to the new innovative and competitive environment. As per the article by Mintrom and Salisbury (2014) team working should not be regarded as an obligation but have to be considered as one of the prime responsibilities of the organization. Since, teamwork increases the possibility of developing healthy work environment. Teamwork creates humors in the work environments that eventually create positive impact on the cohesiveness of the employees. The article also highlighted that the prime responsibilities of the managers is to oversee the organizational approach in starting and fulfilling a particular task effectively. In enhances interaction and socialization among the employees. Over the years, many management theories have been developed in order to explain how managers should work so that they can able to handle teamwork of the employees in an effective manner. In the book The Function of Executive, Chester Barnard has developed; a model that describes that organization operates as a cooperative system (Farh, Seo and Tesluk 2012). As per this theory, an organization is developed only when an individual can fulfill his own task effectively. The theory also highlighted that organizations have to utilize all its internal resources in order to remain competitive in this hostile business environment. Thus, it has to utilize its capital, equipment and labor in order to succeed in the market. Therefore, the theory highlighted the significance of teamwork for an organization in order to remain competitive in the market. Since, effective utilization of teamwork allows organization to utilize all its resources in a much more effective way. In fact, the theory highli ghted the fact that organizations are developed so that a group of individual can able to work towards a particular objective so that the businesses can able to taste success in the market. The organizational complexity leads to develop many others managerial theories that describes the significance of teamwork in order to gain success in the market. As per the system equilibrium theory, every organization has to achieve a balance in their system (Davidson 2013). The theory highlighted that organization need a balance between two equilibriums process that describes balance between the environment, organizational characters and its members. The theory also highlighted that both the equilibrium try to balance either its members or environment. Thus, it highlighted the fact that utilization of effective teamwork helps organization to achieve both the equilibriums. The inducement contribution theory is relatively complicated as it may argue about circulating in the motivation theory. In the present complex managerial environment, managers are often involved in different types of brain storming process to come up with a solution for the several challenges that organization is facing right now. Bureaucratic model of organization describes the way to develop individuals within the workplace. As mentioned by Maxwell (2013) bureaucratic model describes a well defined way for the organizations that will help to move in the right direction. The article also highlighted that every organization have to follow the chain of command where command will implemented from the top level management to bottom level management. Since, it allows employees to understand the command of the higher authority in a much effective way. As a result, it reduces the possibility of any confusion in the workplace. Therefore, it helps organizations to improve the cohesiveness a mong the employees that eventually help to develop effective teamwork. The bureaucracy model also highlighted that organizations have to perform employment in a well-demonstrated competencies so that it can protect all the employees from any types of arbitrary dismissals. Organizations also have to provide a well-organized way for training the employees so that they can able to work together for the success of the organization. On the other hand, Crawford and Lepine (2013) mentioned that bureaucracy model also have some disadvantages as well. The demerits of bureaucracy model include excessive dependency on the organizational rules and regulations. Since, it induces employees to work in a mechanical way. This model also makes the employees more resistance whenever organization will introduce new techniques and systems. As per the article by Siassakos et al. (2013) leadership is another crucial factor that play key role in utilizing teamwork at the organizational workplace. The article highlighted Kurt Lewins force field theory that describes the significance of leadership skill in decision making process. The theory also highlighted the impact of the democratic in a company. The article also highlighted that Kurt Lewin also mentioned different style of leadership namely autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire that organization can utilize for the effective utilization of the operational process. However, the theory also highlighted that democratic leader always able to get more cooperation from the employees. Since, democratic leadership style allows employees to share their opinion and also provides the freedom to work freely within the organizational structure. On the other hand, autocratic leadership style increases the frustration level among the employees, as they do not able to share their v iews and thoughts to the management (Long and Fang 2013). Therefore, the article mentioned that organizations are more likely to utilize teamwork by introducing democratic leadership style in the organizational workplace. Kozlowski et al. (2015) mentioned Lewins theory of Force Field Analysis that describes that activities of the employees are affected by the surrounding environment. The theory mentioned that environment is mutually interacting characters that are completely independent from each other. The Force Field Analysis also utilizes three principles that include mathematic presentation of concentric stations. It also highlighted the behavior as the key function of the field where the company is laid and the beginning of analyses in a complete situation. The prime objective of this theory is to determine when the company is progressing or to identify whether the company is static in its position. This analysis is crucial, as it allows organizations to implement necessary changes so that the company can able to fulfill its objective in an appropriate manner. The Force Field Analysis highlighted many factors including individual goals, employee ambition and the overall objectives of the organiza tion. As per the article by Chuang, Jackson and Jiang (2016) group decision theory is another important theory that highlighted the importance of teamwork in the organizational workplace. The theory highlighted the significance of sharing ideas in the workplace so that every individual can agree in a common idea so that organization can able to fulfill its operational requirements effectively. The theory also highlighted two prime ideas of group dynamics. This includes task interdependence and interdependence of fate. The interdependence of fate highlighted the fact that every individual in the group has different characters. The presence of different types of character is an advantage for the group. Since, a member who has already achieved a particular objective will always be ready to take on new challenges. Therefore, that particular member will induce other individuals to take on the objective. As a result, organization will able to increase its level of efficiency. On the other hand, task interdependence reflects that interdependency of a group in achieving a particular goal will help organization to create strong group dynamisms. Therefore, it will help organization to fulfill all their objectives in an appropriate way. In addition, Stashevsky and Levy (2014) mentioned that effectiveness of the group heavily depends on the level of interdependence. If an organization holds very low level of interdependency then it will saturate the growth of the organization. However, the theory highlighted that if all the member of the group share common objective then it is more likely to have a strong team bonding. This eventually will create positive impact on the overall effectiveness of the organization. Conclusion: From the above discussion, it can be assess that organizations have to consider many factors that can have affect on the teamwork. The above discussed theories and examples highlighted that organizations have to summarize the entire ideology for improving the effectiveness of the teamwork. However, it is evident that developing an effective teamwork environment is not an easy task. In the present business context, every organization utilizes complex operational system that operates at several levels to fulfill common organizational goal. Now, every system is implemented by different set of people who possess different characters. In order to keep them on the same page, managers of the organization have to take greater responsibility to show the right way for the employees to move forward. Managers also have to understand the kind of external and internal challenges that employees are facing in the work environment. Therefore, managers also have to motivate all the employees so that t he cohesiveness of the group does not get affected. Thus, it can be mentioned that developing effective teamwork is not an easy process but organizations have to utilize it in an appropriate way to remain competitive in the market. References: Chuang, C.H., Jackson, S.E. and Jiang, Y., 2016. Can knowledge-intensive teamwork be managed? Examining the roles of HRM systems, leadership, and tacit knowledge.Journal of management,42(2), pp.524-554. Crawford, E.R. and Lepine, J.A., 2013. A configural theory of team processes: Accounting for the structure of taskwork and teamwork.Academy of Management Review,38(1), pp.32-48. 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